Science in Medieval Jewish Scholarship
Jewish scholars in the Middle Ages viewed science as an avenue for knowing
God.
By Rachel Furst
From the tenth to fifteenth centuries, scholars throughout
the Jewish world engaged in the appropriation and integration of classical and
Islamic scientific traditions. So strong was the influence of this scientific
trend that to be an intellectual, one was virtually required to study
philosophy and the natural sciences.
Early Middle Ages
Jews living in Islamic lands, who were well-integrated into
their cultural environment, participated actively in the scientific renaissance
of the early Middle Ages. In addition to acquiring scientific knowledge,
producing their own scientific literature, and promoting the appreciation of
natural wonders, these Jewish scholars, who wrote primarily in Arabic, played
an important role in the transmission of Greek science to Islamic society.
They contributed to major, collaborative endeavors funded by
non-Jewish patrons and served as physicians and astronomers in royal courts
across Europe and the Middle East. Several prominent figures, among them Saadia
Gaon (882–942) and Moses Maimonides (1135–1204), endeavored to demonstrate that
the study of natural science and philosophy was not inconsistent with religious
belief and was, perhaps, even a prerequisite to true faith.
Later Middle Ages
During the latter half of this era, Jewish scientific
activity was focused in the Christian regions of southern France and northern
Spain and was conducted primarily in Hebrew. In Provence, Jewish scholars
skilled in Arabic and philosophical thought, including Abraham bar Hiyya (d.
1145), Levi ben Gershon (1288–1344), and members of the ibn Tibbon family,
engaged in the translation of scientific writings from Arabic to Hebrew; the
transcription of vernacular scientific works in Hebrew characters; and the
composition of original scientific treatises.
Much of this intellectual activity was inspired by the
influx of Jews fleeing the Almohad persecutions in Muslim Spain. Some of these
scholars were involved in large-scale translation projects sponsored by local
patrons and functioned as intermediaries between Muslim and Christian cultures.
By adjusting their medium, the transplants also succeeded in transmitting their
cultural heritage to Provencal Jewry, a community whose literary language was
Hebrew and whose primary intellectual endeavor was the study of Talmud and
Jewish law.
Other important centers of Jewish scientific inquiry during
these centuries included Italy and Sicily; Greece and Turkey; Egypt, the Land
of Israel, Syria, and Iraq; Yemen and North Africa; and even eastern Europe.
In Ashkenaz
Jews living in northern France and Germany did not, for the
most part, embrace the study of the natural sciences or philosophy, as did
their co-religionists in other regions. Few translations or original works
emanated from these communities, nor did the sciences significantly impact
their other scholarly writings and literary productions.
More isolated from general culture than the Jews of Southern
Europe, the scholars of Ashkenaz were in the vanguard of an anti-rationalist
campaign to ban the infiltration of "alien wisdom" into religious
study, perceiving philosophy and the sciences as antithetical to true faith.
Nonetheless, although they rejected Aristotelian thought and
remained outside the sphere of Islamic philosophical influence, northern
European Jews did not remain entirely unaffected by the scientific trends of
their age. An appreciation for the wonders of the natural world is evidenced in
their writings as well as in those from the "scientific" communities.
Astronomy
Amongst Jewish scholars, astronomy was the most
widely-studied and widely-practiced of the natural sciences. It was, in fact,
the primary field in which Jewish scholars made original contributions,
innovating new theories, tables, and instruments.
Though there is no definitive explanation, astronomy's
popularity may have been the result of its practical use in the determination
of the Hebrew calendar or of the significance of the celestial bodies to the study
of metaphysics, which was the ultimate goal of scientific inquiry for most
Jewish intellectuals.
Prominent astronomers included the previously-mentioned
Abraham bar Hiyya and Levi ben Gershon, as well as Judah ibn Verga (fifteenth
century). Physics was also a widely-studied discipline due to its theological
import.
Medicine
Medicine, traditionally perceived as a "Jewish"
discipline, was another field of interest which afforded medieval Jews
opportunities for social, political, and economic advancement. Maimonides was
perhaps the most famous medieval Jewish doctor, but there were countless
others.
Research has demonstrated that the number of Jews studying
and practicing medicine in medieval Europe was disproportionate to their share
of the population, despite the fact that Jews were barred from most
universities. Pharmacology was a prominent field as well, and Jewish
intellectuals and practitioners theorized and debated the efficacy of drugs and
dosages.
Mathematics
Mathematics was mostly studied in the context of astronomy
or philosophy; consequently, the branches which merited attention were geometry
and trigonometry. Algebra was not widely appreciated by medieval Jews, as it
was perceived to be of little practical or philosophical value.
A focus on numbers and numerology is evident in many
medieval Jewish works, prominent among them the writings of Abraham ibn Ezra
(1092–1167), which were heavily influenced by Neo-Platonism, and of Judah
ha-Levi (1075–1141), who sought to counter this influence.
Science and Magic
The demarcation between science and magic was not always
distinct during the Middle Ages, and disciplines that would now be considered
of dubious scientific value were also the focus of Jewish inquiry, including
astrology.
Although Maimonides and other Jewish scholars denounced
astrology as a questionable scientific pursuit and a religiously-prohibited
form of divination, Abraham ibn Ezra, Abraham bar Hiyya, and other serious
scientists engaged in astrological study and relied upon its principles in
their scholarly writings. Few Jews, however, engaged in the study or practice
of alchemy (attempting to transmute baser metals into gold), a curiosity which
has yet to be satisfactorily explained.
Scientific Encyclopedias
In addition to discrete treatises, numerous scientific
encyclopedias were compiled during this era. Hebrew translations of Greek and
Andalusian texts constituted much of the material anthologized in these works,
which ranged in focus from mathematics, physics, and astronomy to meteorology,
biology, and natural philosophy. Yet despite their scientific bent, most of
these compilations were written for religious purposes and also included long
sections on theology and Biblical exegesis.
Science with a Religious Flavor
Some claim that medieval Jews were not true scientists, as
they studied natural phenomenon primarily for practical purposes or as an
avenue for knowing God, rather than as an end unto itself. Their pursuit of the
natural sciences, which was often, if not always, undertaken in the context of
philosophical study, was largely inseparable from their activity in the realms
of theology and metaphysics.
Indeed, most of the prominent Jewish scientists of the
medieval era were traditional scholars whose erudition and creativity was
primarily expressed through Biblical exegesis, Talmudic commentaries, legal
treatises, and religious philosophy.
Levi ben Gershon ("Gersonides"), among the most
celebrated Jewish scientists of the medieval era, is an outstanding example.
Like other Jewish scientists, he was widely-known for his Biblical
commentaries, Talmudic works, and liturgical compositions. Among his scientific
contributions were astronomical models, tables for solar and lunar motion,
theories concerning the camera obscura
(an optical device used in drawing--an ancestor to photography), an improved
model for the astrolabe (a classical astronomical instrument), and other
astronomical instruments, including the Jacob Staff, which measures the angles
between celestial bodies and was utilized as a navigational device by sailors
until the mid-eighteenth century.
Foreign Wisdom?
In their passion for science, a number of medieval scholars,
including Judah Ha-Levi, claimed that scientific thought originated with the
People of Israel and the Torah, and not with the Greeks, as was commonly
believed. Others, including Maimonides, conceded that in their quest for
scientific wisdom, Jews would need to look outside their own traditions, though
Maimonides too was of the opinion that the Talmudic rabbis had been masters of
science despite subsequently abandoning such pursuits.
Medieval scholars recognized that many scientific theories
of their own day contradicted assumptions advanced by earlier Jewish thinkers,
and they generally drew distinctions between disputing scientific precedent and
challenging religious tradition.
Yet in contrast to Ha-Levi, Maimonides' approach reflected a
remarkable openness to the influence of "foreign wisdom." The
legitimization of appropriating knowledge that originated from non-Jewish
sources and outside the confines of the Jewish community was a major effect of
the medieval scientific movement.
Anti-Rationalism
Science was not without its detractors, as demonstrated by
the so-called "Maimonidean Controversy," an anti-rationalist campaign
that rejected the philosophical and scientific trend which characterized much
of the Jewish scholarship emanating from Andalusia in Spain and, later, from
Provence.
Anti-rationalist movements existed alongside the rationalist
bent in Jewish thought from the time of Saadia Gaon, though the dispute between
the scientist-philosophers and the traditional religious thinkers peaked in the
early decades of the thirteenth century and again in the fourteenth.
Opponents of "Greek wisdom," who drew support from
the scholars of northern Europe, rejected the synthesis of faith and reason and
attempted to ban the study of philosophy and science. But despite their best
efforts, the detractors were unable to stamp out the scientific movement, which
impacted Jewish scholarship to an extent that was not felt again until the
enlightenment of the modern era.
Rachel Furst is a
Talmud teacher and a graduate student in medieval Jewish history at the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem.
